Assignment Prompt & Instructions
**files (3)**
– ## MilestoneOne.docx
– ## Milestone21.docx
– FinalProjectGuidelinesandRubric.docx
**## MilestoneOne.docx**
2
**Milestone One: Organ System Assessment**
Danitza Fernandez-Andes
SNHU
Intro to Anatomy & Physiology
Professor: Tina Lane
January 15, 2026
**Milestone One: Organ System Assessment**
**Chosen Organ System:** _Respiratory System_
**Anatomy (Location, Organs, Structures, Cells/Tissues)**
·
**Anatomical location:** The respiratory system is located primarily in the
**thoracic cavity**, with the upper airway beginning in the
**nasal cavity** of the head and extending down into the chest.
·
**Upper respiratory tract structures:** Includes the nose/nasal cavity, paranasal sinuses, pharynx, and larynx, which filter, warm, and humidify inhaled air.
·
**Lower respiratory tract structures:** Includes the trachea, bronchi, bronchioles, and lungs, which conduct air to gas-exchange surfaces .
·
**Primary organs:** The lungs are the main organs of respiration and contain the alveoli where gas exchange occurs.
·
**Alveoli structure:** **Alveoli** are microscopic air sacs surrounded by capillaries, forming the respiratory membrane for oxygen and carbon dioxide diffusion.
·
**Key tissue type (epithelial tissue):** The trachea and bronchi are lined with pseudostratified ciliated columnar epithelium, which helps trap and move mucus upward.
·
**Key cell type (Type I pneumocytes):** Type I alveolar cells form thin walls that allow rapid diffusion of gases.
·
**Key cell type (Type II pneumocytes):** Type II alveolar cells secrete surfactant, reducing surface tension and preventing alveolar collapse.
·
**Key defense cells:** **Alveolar macrophages** remove debris and pathogens to support immune defense in the lungs .
·
**Supporting structures:** The diaphragm and intercostal muscles assist ventilation by changing thoracic volume and pressure.
**“Labeled respiratory system location relative to other organ systems”**
**Physiology (Major Functions + One Visual Function)**
·
**Primary function 1 (gas exchange):** The respiratory system performs oxygen uptake and carbon dioxide removal through diffusion across the alveolar-capillary membrane.
·
**Primary function 2 (ventilation mechanics):** Breathing occurs through inhalation and exhalation, driven by pressure changes created by the diaphragm and chest wall expansion .
·
**Primary function 3 (pH regulation):** By controlling CO₂ levels, the respiratory system helps regulate acid–base balance in the blood .
·
**Primary function 4 (air conditioning and protection):** The airway filters particles and pathogens using mucus and cilia, reducing respiratory infection risk .
**“Labeled diagram illustrating one function (alveolar gas exchange)”**
Reference
Moussavi, Z. (2022). Anatomy and Physiology of Respiratory System. In
_Fundamentals of Respiratory System and Sounds Analysis_ (pp. 1-8). Cham: Springer International Publishing.
## image1.png
## image2.jpeg
**## Milestone21.docx**
2
**Secondary Organ System: Cardiovascular System**
Danitza Fernandez-Andes
SNHU
Intro to Anatomy & Physiology
Professor: Tina Lane
January 25, 2026
## **Organ System Interrelationship and Disease Assessment**
**Primary Organ System: Respiratory System**
**Secondary Organ System: Cardiovascular System**
**Homeostatic Interrelationship and Physiological Interactions**
· The pulmonary and circulatory systems function as integrated, bringing oxygen into the tissues and transporting carbon dioxide out of the body.
· Additional blood is oxygenated at the lungs by gas exchange in the alveoli and then pumped through the heart for systemic circulation.
· The CO2 generated from the metabolism in cells is carried by the cardiovascular system back to the lung for expiration.
· It is the hemoglobin in red blood cells that carries oxygen from the lungs and delivers it to peripheral tissues.
· The pulmonary circulation between the heart and lungs provides a route for gaseous exchange to occur.
· Both mechanisms are for the purpose of maintaining blood pH with respect to equilibrium with carbon dioxide.
· More physical activity causes the body to breathe harder and faster in order to keep up with its heart rate.
· Good lung ventilation is important for optimal CO and tissue perfusion.
· The respiratory system impacts blood pressure via oxygen delivery and vasomotor tone.
· Impairment of the latter by dysfunction in either system leads to disturbances in oxygen supply and cellular metabolism.
**Significance of Human Health**
· This relationship maintains cellular respiration, energy production, and organ function.
· Proper interaction prevents hypoxia, acidosis, and organ failure.
· Long-term survival depends on efficient coordination between breathing and circulation.
**Disease Affecting the Primary System: Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD)**
**Description of the Condition**
· Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) is a progressive lung condition with airways limitation persistency.
· It comprises chronic bronchitis and emphysema.
· COPD, characterized by persistent lungs airflow limitation, usually affects adults aged 40 and over who have been exposed to smoking or long-term pollutants.
· Presenting symptoms are persistent cough, shortness of breath, wheezing and fatigue.
**Causes**
· The leading cause of COPD is long-term cigarette smoking.
· Environmental pollutants, occupational dust, and chemical exposure contribute to disease development (GOLD, 2024).
· Genetic factors, such as alpha-1 antitrypsin deficiency, also increase risk.
· Recurrent respiratory infections may worsen disease progression.
**Implications and Consequences**
· COPD reduces lung elasticity and airway patency, impairing oxygen exchange.
· Chronic hypoxia increases cardiac workload, leading to pulmonary hypertension and right-sided heart failure.
· Patients’ experience decreased exercise tolerance and quality of life.
· Frequent hospitalizations and long-term oxygen therapy increase healthcare costs.
· COPD contributes significantly to disability and premature mortality in the United States.
**Prevalence in the United States**
· About 14.2 million U.S. adults have been diagnosed with COPD.
· Another 7–8 million people are believed to be undiagnosed (CDC, 2023).
· Among older, smoking and low socioeconomic population are those with high prevalence levels.
**References**
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2023).
_Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) data and statistics_. https://www.cdc.gov/copd/data.html
Global Initiative for Chronic Obstructive Lung Disease. (2024).
_Global strategy for the diagnosis, management, and prevention of COPD (2024 report)_.
[https://goldcopd.org/2024-gold-report/](https://goldcopd.org/2024-gold-report/)
**FinalProjectGuidelinesandRubric.docx**
This file is too large to display. [View in new window](https://www.sweetstudy.com/files/finalprojectguidelinesandrubric-docx-10503681)
**FinalProjectGuidelinesandRubric.docx**
This file is too large to display. [View in new window](https://www.sweetstudy.com/files/finalprojectguidelinesandrubric-docx-10503681)
**## MilestoneOne.docx**
2
**Milestone One: Organ System Assessment**
Danitza Fernandez-Andes
SNHU
Intro to Anatomy & Physiology
Professor: Tina Lane
January 15, 2026
**Milestone One: Organ System Assessment**
**Chosen Organ System:** _Respiratory System_
**Anatomy (Location, Organs, Structures, Cells/Tissues)**
·
**Anatomical location:** The respiratory system is located primarily in the
**thoracic cavity**, with the upper airway beginning in the
**nasal cavity** of the head and extending down into the chest.
·
**Upper respiratory tract structures:** Includes the nose/nasal cavity, paranasal sinuses, pharynx, and larynx, which filter, warm, and humidify inhaled air.
·
**Lower respiratory tract structures:** Includes the trachea, bronchi, bronchioles, and lungs, which conduct air to gas-exchange surfaces .
·
**Primary organs:** The lungs are the main organs of respiration and contain the alveoli where gas exchange occurs.
·
**Alveoli structure:** **Alveoli** are microscopic air sacs surrounded by capillaries, forming the respiratory membrane for oxygen and carbon dioxide diffusion.
·
**Key tissue type (epithelial tissue):** The trachea and bronchi are lined with pseudostratified ciliated columnar epithelium, which helps trap and move mucus upward.
·
**Key cell type (Type I pneumocytes):** Type I alveolar cells form thin walls that allow rapid diffusion of gases.
·
**Key cell type (Type II pneumocytes):** Type II alveolar cells secrete surfactant, reducing surface tension and preventing alveolar collapse.
·
**Key defense cells:** **Alveolar macrophages** remove debris and pathogens to support immune defense in the lungs .
·
**Supporting structures:** The diaphragm and intercostal muscles assist ventilation by changing thoracic volume and pressure.
**“Labeled respiratory system location relative to other organ systems”**
**Physiology (Major Functions + One Visual Function)**
·
**Primary function 1 (gas exchange):** The respiratory system performs oxygen uptake and carbon dioxide removal through diffusion across the alveolar-capillary membrane.
·
**Primary function 2 (ventilation mechanics):** Breathing occurs through inhalation and exhalation, driven by pressure changes created by the diaphragm and chest wall expansion .
·
**Primary function 3 (pH regulation):** By controlling CO₂ levels, the respiratory system helps regulate acid–base balance in the blood .
·
**Primary function 4 (air conditioning and protection):** The airway filters particles and pathogens using mucus and cilia, reducing respiratory infection risk .
**“Labeled diagram illustrating one function (alveolar gas exchange)”**
Reference
Moussavi, Z. (2022). Anatomy and Physiology of Respiratory System. In
_Fundamentals of Respiratory System and Sounds Analysis_ (pp. 1-8). Cham: Springer International Publishing.
## image1.png
## image2.jpeg
**## Milestone21.docx**
2
**Secondary Organ System: Cardiovascular System**
Danitza Fernandez-Andes
SNHU
Intro to Anatomy & Physiology
Professor: Tina Lane
January 25, 2026
## **Organ System Interrelationship and Disease Assessment**
**Primary Organ System: Respiratory System**
**Secondary Organ System: Cardiovascular System**
**Homeostatic Interrelationship and Physiological Interactions**
· The pulmonary and circulatory systems function as integrated, bringing oxygen into the tissues and transporting carbon dioxide out of the body.
· Additional blood is oxygenated at the lungs by gas exchange in the alveoli and then pumped through the heart for systemic circulation.
· The CO2 generated from the metabolism in cells is carried by the cardiovascular system back to the lung for expiration.
· It is the hemoglobin in red blood cells that carries oxygen from the lungs and delivers it to peripheral tissues.
· The pulmonary circulation between the heart and lungs provides a route for gaseous exchange to occur.
· Both mechanisms are for the purpose of maintaining blood pH with respect to equilibrium with carbon dioxide.
· More physical activity causes the body to breathe harder and faster in order to keep up with its heart rate.
· Good lung ventilation is important for optimal CO and tissue perfusion.
· The respiratory system impacts blood pressure via oxygen delivery and vasomotor tone.
· Impairment of the latter by dysfunction in either system leads to disturbances in oxygen supply and cellular metabolism.
**Significance of Human Health**
· This relationship maintains cellular respiration, energy production, and organ function.
· Proper interaction prevents hypoxia, acidosis, and organ failure.
· Long-term survival depends on efficient coordination between breathing and circulation.
**Disease Affecting the Primary System: Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD)**
**Description of the Condition**
· Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) is a progressive lung condition with airways limitation persistency.
· It comprises chronic bronchitis and emphysema.
· COPD, characterized by persistent lungs airflow limitation, usually affects adults aged 40 and over who have been exposed to smoking or long-term pollutants.
· Presenting symptoms are persistent cough, shortness of breath, wheezing and fatigue.
**Causes**
· The leading cause of COPD is long-term cigarette smoking.
· Environmental pollutants, occupational dust, and chemical exposure contribute to disease development (GOLD, 2024).
· Genetic factors, such as alpha-1 antitrypsin deficiency, also increase risk.
· Recurrent respiratory infections may worsen disease progression.
**Implications and Consequences**
· COPD reduces lung elasticity and airway patency, impairing oxygen exchange.
· Chronic hypoxia increases cardiac workload, leading to pulmonary hypertension and right-sided heart failure.
· Patients’ experience decreased exercise tolerance and quality of life.
· Frequent hospitalizations and long-term oxygen therapy increase healthcare costs.
· COPD contributes significantly to disability and premature mortality in the United States.
**Prevalence in the United States**
· About 14.2 million U.S. adults have been diagnosed with COPD.
· Another 7–8 million people are believed to be undiagnosed (CDC, 2023).
· Among older, smoking and low socioeconomic population are those with high prevalence levels.
**References**
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2023).
_Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) data and statistics_. https://www.cdc.gov/copd/data.html
Global Initiative for Chronic Obstructive Lung Disease. (2024).
_Global strategy for the diagnosis, management, and prevention of COPD (2024 report)_.
[https://goldcopd.org/2024-gold-report/](https://goldcopd.org/2024-gold-report/)
**FinalProjectGuidelinesandRubric.docx**
This file is too large to display. [View in new window](https://www.sweetstudy.com/files/finalprojectguidelinesandrubric-docx-10503681)
**## MilestoneOne.docx**
2
**Milestone One: Organ System Assessment**
Danitza Fernandez-Andes
SNHU
Intro to Anatomy & Physiology
Professor: Tina Lane
January 15, 2026
**Milestone One: Organ System Assessment**
**Chosen Organ System:** _Respiratory System_
**Anatomy (Location, Organs, Structures, Cells/Tissues)**
·
**Anatomical location:** The respiratory system is located primarily in the
**thoracic cavity**, with the upper airway beginning in the
**nasal cavity** of the head and extending down into the chest.
·
**Upper respiratory tract structures:** Includes the nose/nasal cavity, paranasal sinuses, pharynx, and larynx, which filter, warm, and humidify inhaled air.
·
**Lower respiratory tract structures:** Includes the trachea, bronchi, bronchioles, and lungs, which conduct air to gas-exchange surfaces .
·
**Primary organs:** The lungs are the main organs of respiration and contain the alveoli where gas exchange occurs.
·
**Alveoli structure:** **Alveoli** are microscopic air sacs surrounded by capillaries, forming the respiratory membrane for oxygen and carbon dioxide diffusion.
·
**Key tissue type (epithelial tissue):** The trachea and bronchi are lined with pseudostratified ciliated columnar epithelium, which helps trap and move mucus upward.
·
**Key cell type (Type I pneumocytes):** Type I alveolar cells form thin walls that allow rapid diffusion of gases.
·
**Key cell type (Type II pneumocytes):** Type II alveolar cells secrete surfactant, reducing surface tension and preventing alveolar collapse.
·
**Key defense cells:** **Alveolar macrophages** remove debris and pathogens to support immune defense in the lungs .
·
**Supporting structures:** The diaphragm and intercostal muscles assist ventilation by changing thoracic volume and pressure.
**“Labeled respiratory system location relative to other organ systems”**
**Physiology (Major Functions + One Visual Function)**
·
**Primary function 1 (gas exchange):** The respiratory system performs oxygen uptake and carbon dioxide removal through diffusion across the alveolar-capillary membrane.
·
**Primary function 2 (ventilation mechanics):** Breathing occurs through inhalation and exhalation, driven by pressure changes created by the diaphragm and chest wall expansion .
·
**Primary function 3 (pH regulation):** By controlling CO₂ levels, the respiratory system helps regulate acid–base balance in the blood .
·
**Primary function 4 (air conditioning and protection):** The airway filters particles and pathogens using mucus and cilia, reducing respiratory infection risk .
**“Labeled diagram illustrating one function (alveolar gas exchange)”**
Reference
Moussavi, Z. (2022). Anatomy and Physiology of Respiratory System. In
_Fundamentals of Respiratory System and Sounds Analysis_ (pp. 1-8). Cham: Springer International Publishing.
## image1.png
## image2.jpeg
**## Milestone21.docx**
2
**Secondary Organ System: Cardiovascular System**
Danitza Fernandez-Andes
SNHU
Intro to Anatomy & Physiology
Professor: Tina Lane
January 25, 2026
## **Organ System Interrelationship and Disease Assessment**
**Primary Organ System: Respiratory System**
**Secondary Organ System: Cardiovascular System**
**Homeostatic Interrelationship and Physiological Interactions**
· The pulmonary and circulatory systems function as integrated, bringing oxygen into the tissues and transporting carbon dioxide out of the body.
· Additional blood is oxygenated at the lungs by gas exchange in the alveoli and then pumped through the heart for systemic circulation.
· The CO2 generated from the metabolism in cells is carried by the cardiovascular system back to the lung for expiration.
· It is the hemoglobin in red blood cells that carries oxygen from the lungs and delivers it to peripheral tissues.
· The pulmonary circulation between the heart and lungs provides a route for gaseous exchange to occur.
· Both mechanisms are for the purpose of maintaining blood pH with respect to equilibrium with carbon dioxide.
· More physical activity causes the body to breathe harder and faster in order to keep up with its heart rate.
· Good lung ventilation is important for optimal CO and tissue perfusion.
· The respiratory system impacts blood pressure via oxygen delivery and vasomotor tone.
· Impairment of the latter by dysfunction in either system leads to disturbances in oxygen supply and cellular metabolism.
**Significance of Human Health**
· This relationship maintains cellular respiration, energy production, and organ function.
· Proper interaction prevents hypoxia, acidosis, and organ failure.
· Long-term survival depends on efficient coordination between breathing and circulation.
**Disease Affecting the Primary System: Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD)**
**Description of the Condition**
· Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) is a progressive lung condition with airways limitation persistency.
· It comprises chronic bronchitis and emphysema.
· COPD, characterized by persistent lungs airflow limitation, usually affects adults aged 40 and over who have been exposed to smoking or long-term pollutants.
· Presenting symptoms are persistent cough, shortness of breath, wheezing and fatigue.
**Causes**
· The leading cause of COPD is long-term cigarette smoking.
· Environmental pollutants, occupational dust, and chemical exposure contribute to disease development (GOLD, 2024).
· Genetic factors, such as alpha-1 antitrypsin deficiency, also increase risk.
· Recurrent respiratory infections may worsen disease progression.
**Implications and Consequences**
· COPD reduces lung elasticity and airway patency, impairing oxygen exchange.
· Chronic hypoxia increases cardiac workload, leading to pulmonary hypertension and right-sided heart failure.
· Patients’ experience decreased exercise tolerance and quality of life.
· Frequent hospitalizations and long-term oxygen therapy increase healthcare costs.
· COPD contributes significantly to disability and premature mortality in the United States.
**Prevalence in the United States**
· About 14.2 million U.S. adults have been diagnosed with COPD.
· Another 7–8 million people are believed to be undiagnosed (CDC, 2023).
· Among older, smoking and low socioeconomic population are those with high prevalence levels.
**References**
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2023).
_Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) data and statistics_. https://www.cdc.gov/copd/data.html
Global Initiative for Chronic Obstructive Lung Disease. (2024).
_Global strategy for the diagnosis, management, and prevention of COPD (2024 report)_.
[https://goldcopd.org/2024-gold-report/](https://goldcopd.org/2024-gold-report/)
**FinalProjectGuidelinesandRubric.docx**
This file is too large to display. [View in new window](https://www.sweetstudy.com/files/finalprojectguidelinesandrubric-docx-10503681)